{"id":5797,"date":"2025-10-24T20:11:12","date_gmt":"2025-10-24T12:11:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/acas.world\/?p=5797"},"modified":"2025-11-03T23:21:51","modified_gmt":"2025-11-03T15:21:51","slug":"reexamining-the-independence-of-independent-animation-in-china-literature-review-and-knowledge-gap-from-a-production-perspective","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/acas.world\/ja\/2025\/10\/24\/reexamining-the-independence-of-independent-animation-in-china-literature-review-and-knowledge-gap-from-a-production-perspective\/","title":{"rendered":"Reexamining the Independence of Independent Animation in China: Literature Review and Knowledge Gap from a Production Perspective"},"content":{"rendered":"

By Wang Yang and Guo Baoyi<\/strong><\/p>\n

Over the past decade (2011-2024), the term \u201cindependent animation\u201d \u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b has been widely applied in animation production, academic research, media reports, and festivals\/exhibitions in China. However, due to an overlapped context of aesthetic and production perspectives, the definition(s) of \u201cindependence\u201d \u72ec\u7acb towards independent animation is(are) still unclear and polysemous, consequently obscuring scholarly thinking in conceptual genealogical research.[1]<\/a><\/p>\n

To elaborate, firstly, as \u201cindependent animation\u201d was once relatively new in China, it failed to form a clear and authentic definition. In discussions around 2012-2013, the term was noted as being traceable back to the 2008 Beijing Independent Film Festival \u5317\u4eac\u72ec\u7acb\u5f71\u50cf\u5c55.[2]<\/a> During the same period, curators such as Pi San (aka Wang Bo), Dong Bingfeng, and Wang Chunchen began organizing exhibitions under the banner of \u201cindependent animation\u201d (esp. 2012 Shenzhen Independent Animation Biennale \u9996\u5c4a\u6df1\u5733\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u53cc\u5e74\u5c55), which initiated the opinion that it was within biennale discourse that the term started to be academically defined.[3]<\/a> Then, a decade later, in 2025, Cao Kai further couples this concept with the so-called spirit of the \u201cChinese School\u201d \u4e2d\u56fd\u5b66\u6d3e under the name of \u201ccontemporary animation\u201d \u5f53\u4ee3\u52a8\u753b.[4]<\/a><\/p>\n

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Figure 1. On-site landscape of the \u201c25th Anniversary Exhibition of The New Chinese School\u201d \u65b0\u201c\u4e2d\u56fd\u5b66\u6d3e\u201d\u52a8\u753b\u5eff\u4e94\u5e74\u5927\u5c55, BEING Art Museum. (Source Guo Baoyi, photo taken on August 28, 2025.)<\/p>\n

Secondly, pursuing parallel approaches, domestic scholars then often discuss independent animation from an independent film and\/or a contemporary art view, arguing that early independent animation directors followed a non-mainstream working approach. Therefore, related terms include but are not limited to \u201cexperimental animation\u201d \u5b9e\u9a8c\u52a8\u753b, \u201cmin-jian<\/em> animation\u201d \u6c11\u95f4\u52a8\u753b, \u201cself-produced animation\u201d \u4e2a\u4eba\u52a8\u753b, \u201cauteur animation\u201d \u4f5c\u8005\u52a8\u753b and \u201cminor animation\u201d \u5c0f\u4f17\u52a8\u753b emerged. For example, Dong highlights that these works are deeply anti-establishment; in contrast to the commercial discourse.[5]<\/a> Wei believes that they are partly \u201cnon-academic\u201d \u975e\u5b66\u9662.[6]<\/a> Chen positions independent animations as the art ones that \u201cdo things according to one\u2019s own willingness for self-expression but not serving the profit.\u201d[7]<\/a> Auteur animation\u2019s artistic autonomy, despite its marginalized status in the entire film field, is also discussed.[8]<\/a><\/p>\n

Thirdly, domestic studies concerning animation production have not been well developed. As to general animation production \u52a8\u753b\u5236\u7247, Zheng and Yu approach the term from a decision-making view, defining it as animation business management or as animation project development.[9]<\/a> As to independent animation production \u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u5236\u7247, Wang states that these kinds of animations have to be made by individuals or small-scale studios,[10]<\/a> while Xue reductively categorizes works embedded with \u201cindividual completion of directing and screenwriting\u201d \u4e00\u4eba\u72ec\u7acb\u5b8c\u6210\u7f16\u5bfc attributes as non-mainstream animation.[11]<\/a> Moreover, only a few studies regard the process of production as a part of independent animation creators\u2019 \u201ccreative ecology\u201d \u521b\u4f5c\u751f\u6001.[12]<\/a><\/p>\n

Therefore, on the one hand, aesthetically, \u201cindependence\u201d refers to a work-based judgment, and independent animations are considered the non-business-oriented auteur\u2019s works \u4f5c\u8005\u4f5c\u54c1.[13]<\/a> On the other hand, being different from the large-scale studios, \u201cindependence\u201d also refers to individual\/small-scale production, distribution and promotion. Along these lines, several dualistic paradigms have been derived from domestic discourse on \u201cindependence vs. dependence\u201d \u72ec\u7acb-\u975e\u72ec\u7acb in the context of independent animations. Particularly, they are: \u201cmin-jian<\/em> vs. official\u201d \u6c11\u95f4-\u5b98\u65b9, \u201cgrassroots vs. school\u201d \u8349\u6839-\u5b66\u9662, \u201clow culture vs. high culture\u201d \u4f4e\u4fd7-\u9ad8\u96c5, \u201cexperimental vs. non-experimental\u201d \u5b9e\u9a8c-\u975e\u5b9e\u9a8c, \u201cnon-profit vs. commercial\u201d \u975e\u76c8\u5229-\u5546\u4e1a\u5316 and \u201cpersonal creation vs. team production\u201d \u4e2a\u4eba\u521b\u4f5c-\u56e2\u4f53\u751f\u4ea7.<\/p>\n

However, aside from the frequent use of these dichotomies, domestic scholars have not explored their original causes, historical backgrounds and changing processes, not to mention their respective references in the aspects of aesthetics and production. More importantly, due to recent findings and breakthroughs of Chinese independent animations at home and abroad, the previous trial of defining independent animation production has become less appropriate.<\/p>\n

Specifically, observing the widely-known career possibilities of independent animation artists (e.g., Chen Lianhua, Lei Lei), the potential business opportunities of making independent animated features\/series (e.g., To the Bright Side<\/em> \u5411\u7740\u660e\u4eae\u90a3\u65b9, 2021; Yao-Chinese Folktales <\/em>\u4e2d\u56fd\u5947\u8c2d, 2023; and Bilibili\u2019s Capsules Project <\/em>\u80f6\u56ca\u8ba1\u5212, 2022-ongoing), the prosperous independent animation-oriented exhibitions (e.g. Feinaki Animation Week  \u8d39\u90a3\u5947\u52a8\u753b\u5468, 2019-ongoing), and the remarkable theatrical distribution cases in China (e.g. Have a Nice Day <\/em>\u5927\u4e16\u754c, 2017; The Summer of Mermaid <\/em>\u7f8e\u4eba\u9c7c\u7684\u590f\u5929, 2024; Art College 1994 <\/em>\u827a\u672f\u5b66\u9662, 2025), we need more systematic and up-to-date research. <\/p>\n

In this paper, we aim to investigate the changes and links of those aforementioned dichotomies by looking into historical practices, Internet empowerment and the business environment of independent animations in China. Additionally, taking the domestic independent film theories and the worldwide animation production routines as references, we also aim to find out the connotations and differences between \u201caesthetic independence\u201d and \u201cindependent production\u201d in the Chinese context. For a solid research outcome, we then review extensive sources including monographs, academic papers, forum speeches, lecture notes, exhibition catalogs, interview reports and other topic-relevant materials.<\/p>\n

Historical Practices: the Establishment of \u201cMin-jian<\/em> vs. Official\u201d and the Emergence of \u201cExperimental vs. Non-experimental\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

The establishment of \u201cmin-jian<\/em> vs. official\u201d is closely bound up with a Shanghai Animation Film Studio (SAFS)-centered Chinese animation history. Notably, the SAFS influences are threefold: (1) before SAFS was established (ca 1920s-1930s), several independent animation productions with official background were omitted; (2) during the SAFS heyday of team production (ca 1950s-late 1980s), a director-centered mode was emphasized; (3) after SAFS was influenced by the Chinese economic reform (ca late 1980s), the studio and its staff members embraced the free spirit and contributed to an independent production trend.<\/p>\n

As one of the most representative state-owned film studios during the Planned Economy Period, the SAFS crew (former mei-shu<\/em> film group of Dongbei Film Studio \u4e1c\u5317\u7535\u5f71\u5236\u7247\u5382\u7f8e\u672f\u7247\u7ec4) has been known for animation works with distinctive Chinese characteristics.[14]<\/a> On one hand, the advantages of centralized creation, such as \u201cfavorable system\u201d \u4f53\u5236\u4f18\u8d8a and \u201cstable structure\u201d \u7ed3\u6784\u7a33\u5b9a, contribute to SAFS\u2019s high-quality production.[15]<\/a> On the other hand, following the nationalism-oriented ideology, the Ministry of Culture \u6587\u5316\u90e8 once formulated a \u201cserve the children and teenagers\u201d \u4e3a\u5c11\u5e74\u513f\u7ae5\u670d\u52a1 guideline for mei-shu<\/em> films, and SAFS proposed the slogan \u201cexplore the path of Chinese style\u201d \u63a2\u6c11\u65cf\u98ce\u683c\u4e4b\u8def in response.[16]<\/a><\/p>\n

Therefore, SAFS animations not only reflected an official and national aesthetics boom, but also made outstanding achievements for Chinese animation history. For instance, Pigsy Eats Watermelon <\/em>\u732a\u516b\u6212\u5403\u897f\u74dc (1958), Baby Tadpoles Look for Their Mother <\/em>\u5c0f\u874c\u86aa\u627e\u5988\u5988 (1960) and The Monkey King <\/em>\u5927\u95f9\u5929\u5bab (1961-64) have enjoyed international reputation; Wang Shuchen \u738b\u6811\u5ff1, director of Prince Nezha\u2019s Triumph Against Dragon King   <\/em>\u54ea\u5412\u95f9\u6d77 (1980), once led a Chinese delegation to attend the 1980 Cannes Film Festival. However, Cao points out that expendables such as celluloid and photographic equipment had been monopolized by the state until the late 1980s.[17]<\/a> In this vein, there was no true \u201cindependently-made animation\u201d at that time.   <\/p>\n

Even though in the 1980s, some SAFS artists took a crack at producing independent animation. At the 1988 Shanghai International Film Festival \u4e0a\u6d77\u56fd\u9645\u52a8\u753b\u7535\u5f71\u8282, this trend reached a peak. In sequence, personal creations or small-scale team productions gradually diverged from the SAFS-representative official routine. Thereby, during the 1992 Shanghai International Film Festival, the number of short animated films made by SAFS artists increased, featuring film studios, animation companies and even individuals all over China.[18]<\/a> Among them, Pu Jiaxiang  \u6d66\u7a3c\u7965 who just retired from SAFS made Watching Peking Opera <\/em>\u770b\u620f (1991) – a Chinese ink wash painting style animated film – at his own expense; Sun Zhe \u5b59\u54f2 directed Grass <\/em>\u5c0f\u8349 (1992), which was sponsored by Beijing Glorious Animation Company \u5317\u4eac\u8f89\u714c\u52a8\u753b\u516c\u53f8; and the under-reform SAFS also tried to produce low-cost works, which were witnessed by short films such as Desert Wind <\/em>\u6f20\u98ce (1992), OK <\/em>(1992), and The Cat and the Rat <\/em>\u732b\u4e0e\u9f20 (1992).<\/p>\n

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Figure 2. We can see the script for OK<\/em> is located in the upper right corner. From \u201cAnimating China – A History of Shanghai Animation Films\u201d \u7ed8\u52a8\u4e16\u754c\u2014\u2014\u4e0a\u6d77\u7f8e\u672f\u7535\u5f71\u7684\u65f6\u4ee3\u8bb0\u5fc6\u4e0e\u5f53\u4ee3\u56de\u54cd, Shanghai Minsheng Art Museum. (Source Guo Baoyi, photo taken on August 27, 2024.)<\/p>\n

Despite this, of particular relevance to SAFS, film studios or animation companies, the cases above are rarely described as min-jian<\/em> works by Chinese scholars. For example, Wu suggests that it is the 2001 Beijing Independent Film Festival \u5317\u4eac\u9996\u5c4a\u72ec\u7acb\u6620\u50cf\u8282 that links \u201cmin-jian<\/em>\u201d to \u201cunofficial\u201d, where remarkable independent animation artists such as Meng Jun \u5b5f\u519b (TALK<\/em>\u804a\u5929, 2001) and Ultra Girl Studio (I Love U <\/em>\u6211\u7231\u4f60, 2001) took part.[19]<\/a> Besides, Cao regards the festival from a film production-centered view, seeing it as an output simultaneously influenced by the New Documentary Movement \u65b0\u7eaa\u5f55\u7247\u8fd0\u52a8 (1980s-1990s), video art and the sixth generation of Chinese filmmakers.[20]<\/a> In other words, it is not very relevant to animation.<\/p>\n

Nevertheless, in opposition to the \u201cofficial\u201d tag of SAFS\u2019s heyday, we argue that the late 1980s personal creations of SAFS staff members already have an \u201cunofficial\u201d attribute, and it strongly confirms the \u201cmin-jian<\/em> vs. official\u201d paradigm. Meanwhile, we also argue that the SAFS system has an exclusive contribution to the establishment of this paradigm to a certain extent.<\/p>\n

Specifically speaking, before the founding of SAFS, government-supported animations such as the Wan Brothers \u4e07\u6c0f\u5144\u5f1f\u2019 Kang Zhan Ge Ji <\/em>\u6297\u6218\u6b4c\u8f91 (1938) and Kang Zhan Biao Yu <\/em>\u6297\u6218\u6807\u8bed (1938) and Qian Jiajun \u94b1\u5bb6\u9a8f\u2019s Nong Jia Le <\/em>\u519c\u5bb6\u4e50 (1940) were sparse and had not raised a broad discussion over \u201cmin-jian<\/em> vs. official.\u201d Moreover, many animation works were made for commercial purposes or duty requests; the lack of non-profit cases and self-expression cases also shadows the \u201cnon-profit vs. commercial\u201d paradigm. For example, Yang Zuotao \u6768\u5de6\u530b made two pieces of so-called \u201cfunny motion pictures\u201d \u6d3b\u52a8\u6ed1\u7a3d\u753b\u7247, i.e. Pause <\/em>\u6682\u505c (1923-24) and Guo Nian <\/em>\u8fc7\u5e74 (1923-24), for the movie department of the British American Tobacco Company \u4e0a\u6d77\u82f1\u7f8e\u70df\u8349\u516c\u53f8\u5f71\u620f\u90e8; Huang Wennong \u9ec4\u6587\u519c made a namely \u201cpen-and-ink motion picture\u201d \u6d3b\u52a8\u94a2\u7b14\u753b\u5f71\u7247 Dogs Treat <\/em>\u72d7\u8bf7\u5ba2 (1924) for the China Film Company \u4e2d\u534e\u5f71\u7247\u516c\u53f8; and Qin Lifan \u79e6\u7acb\u51e1 who acted as the art consultant for the Great China Baihe Company \u5927\u4e2d\u534e\u767e\u5408\u516c\u53f8, made Ball Man <\/em>\u7403\u4eba (1924) – a work combined with animation skill and live action shot.[21]<\/a><\/p>\n

On this basis, from the 1920s to the 1950s, the exploration of animation aesthetics and technology in China was still in a nascent stage, and had not reached a consistent style or technical maturity. As for the \u201cpersonal creation vs. team production\u201d paradigm, though we have personal\/small-scale commissions created by Yang Zuotao, Huang Wennong and Qin Lifan, and the Wan Brothers\u2019 large-scale production Princess Iron Fan<\/em> \u94c1\u6247\u516c\u4e3b (1941) that invested CNY 2 million and made with over 200 animators\/workers, these cases are too weak to be regarded as \u201cteam production.\u201d[22]<\/a> Let alone, Princess Iron Fan<\/em> was made by \u201cdozens of apprentices who could not paint\u201d \u51e0\u5341\u540d\u4e0d\u4f1a\u7ed8\u753b\u7684\u7ec3\u4e60\u751f, as Wan Laiming \u4e07\u7c41\u9e23 and Wan Guohun \u4e07\u56fd\u9b42 recorded.[23]<\/a><\/p>\n

As a result, though there was no such term for \u201cindependent animation\u201d in China before the mid-late 1980s, previous practices had laid a foundation for the \u201cmin-jian<\/em> vs. official\u201d paradigm. In addition, even though scholars usually describe SAFS works (and those of ink-wash painting style, with paper-cut figures or with puppets in particular) as \u201cexperimental\u201d ones, we argue that the \u201cexperimental vs. non-experimental\u201d paradigm is mainly found in a contemporary art sphere, where \u201cpioneering animations\u201d \u5148\u950b\u52a8\u753b and \u201cconceptual animations\u201d \u89c2\u5ff5\u52a8\u753b are some similar terms. Notably, standing upon Zhang Peili \u5f20\u57f9\u529b\u2019s contribution (esp. 30X30<\/em>, 1988) to the boom of new media art in China, it was in the context of contemporary art (esp. 2012 Shenzhen Independent Animation Biennale) that domestic scholars started to discuss independent animation in an academic discourse.[24]<\/a><\/p>\n

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Figure 3. The Shenzhen Independent Animation Biennale was held in 2012, 2014, 2016, and 2019. Here is the catalog of the fourth and last biennale so far. (Source Guo Baoyi, photo taken on August 23, 2025.)<\/p>\n

From then on, the National Radio and Television Administration \u5e7f\u64ad\u7535\u5f71\u7535\u89c6\u90e8 issued Several Opinions of Deepening Reforms of the Mechanism of the Film Industry <\/em>\u5173\u4e8e\u5f53\u524d\u6df1\u5316\u7535\u5f71\u884c\u4e1a\u673a\u5236\u6539\u9769\u7684\u82e5\u5e72\u610f\u89c1 in 1993, which marked the marketization of China\u2019s film industry. In 1997, Flash entered China, subsequently raising the curtain of a \u201cShan-ke Era<\/em>\u201d \u95ea\u5ba2\u65f6\u4ee3. Later, contemporary art was legalized in China at the 2000 Shanghai Biennale. In 2001, the Central Academy of Fine Arts set up a \u201cDigital Media Studio\u201d \u6570\u7801\u827a\u672f\u5de5\u4f5c\u5ba4, where the school\u2019s power showed up. Consequently, when China\u2019s animation production, film-television industry and tertiary education interacted with each other at the beginning of the new century, what we are talking about \u201cindependent animation\u201d was also generating a perspective discrepancy in aesthetic judgments.<\/p>\n

Internet Empowerment: the Differentiation of \u201cLow Culture vs. High Culture\u201d and the Deepening of \u201cGrassroots vs. School\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

In our opinion, three clues interactively contribute to the perspective discrepancy in aesthetic judgments of China\u2019s independent animation. Firstly, Flash, the software, became popular around 2000 and technologically empowered \u201cgrassroots\u201d animation creators. Secondly, \u201cflashempire.com\u201d \u95ea\u5ba2\u5e1d\u56fd, the largest domestic community website among Shan-ke<\/em> from 1999 to 2009, became a main platform for distributing so-called \u201clow culture\u201d animations. Thirdly, artists from the contemporary art area have kept making independent animations, which further consolidates the public impression of \u201chigh culture\u201d and \u201cschool.\u201d<\/p>\n

Admittedly, the rise and fall of flashempire.com should be our pivotal clue for studying China\u2019s independent animation in the 2000s. To elaborate, from the year 1988 when Zhang Peili created 30X30<\/em>, to the year 1997 when Flash entered China, although we had new media art including GIFs, slide films, interactive installations, and other animated works (e.g., Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy <\/em>\u667a\u53d6\u5a01\u864e\u5c71, 1994; My Private Album <\/em>\u79c1\u4eba\u7167\u76f8\u7c3f, 1996; The Journey of Mens and Lust <\/em>\u5fc3\u6b32\u4e4b\u65c5, 1999) (cf. Video Bureau \u5f55\u50cf\u5c40), they had not been widely distributed beyond the art world nor on the Internet.[25]<\/a> After flashempire.com was set up in 1999, due to the popularization of personal computers, the user-friendliness of Flash and the common use of Flash Player, amateur animation creators popped up, then profoundly influenced the domestic creative ecology until around 2010. However, technological empowerment does not directly lead to a perspective discrepancy in aesthetic judgments. After breaking off from the official assessment system for \u201cshort films\u201d \u827a\u672f\u77ed\u7247 or \u201cshort mei-shu<\/em> film\u201d \u7f8e\u672f\u7247\u5c0f\u54c1 during the SAFS era, discussion over nascent Flash-made animations has involved more stakeholders – not only from audience and media, but also from academia and industry.[26]<\/a><\/p>\n

In this Flash-dominated period, we suggest that both animations and their creators were described as \u201cgrassroots\u201d in an early phase. As the word represents, everyone could access animation production, which is opposite to the state monopoly of animation-producing expendables. Meanwhile, \u201cgrassroots\u201d as an adjective also indicates the creators\u2019 educational background. Particularly, although art college graduates (e.g., Pi San \u76ae\u4e09, Bu Hua\u535c\u6866, Bai Ding \u767d\u4e01 — aka Zhu Zhaoxi \u6731\u5146\u66e6) and their counterparts shared the same technical tools to make independent animations, and \u201carts.tom.com\u201d \u7f8e\u672f\u540c\u76df, a professional community website for domestic artists, launched \u201cShan-ke<\/em> forum\u201d in 2001, those graduates have stayed in the art world, instead of adhering to the \u201cgrassroots\u201d creators.[27]<\/a><\/p>\n

Accordingly, Gudu Guoke \u5b64\u72ec\u8fc7\u5ba2 (aka Wang Wei \u6c6a\u97e1), a famous Shan-ke<\/em>, categorized his peers into \u201cComputer Geeks\u201d \u6280\u672f\u6d3e and \u201cArtists\u201d \u827a\u672f\u6d3e. In his observation, as the \u201cComputer Geeks\u201d usually major in Computer Science, they are better at software programming than aesthetic expression; while the latter, art college students as representatives, are on the contrary.[28]<\/a> Moreover, educational background has heavily influenced what the Shan-ke<\/em> makes and where their career goes. Take some computer geeks as examples, Biancheng Langzi \u8fb9\u57ce\u6d6a\u5b50 (aka Gao Dayong \u9ad8\u5927\u52c7) – the founder of flashempire.com, Xiaoxiao \u5c0f\u5c0f (aka Zhu Zhiqiang \u6731\u5fd7\u5f3a) – whose representative work is the Xiao Xiao Series <\/em>\u5c0f\u5c0f\u7cfb\u5217 (2000-2002), and BBQI (aka Qi Chaohui \u9f50\u671d\u6656) who made Love Song 1980 <\/em>\u604b\u66f2 1980 (2001), have all finally jumped into the game-production areas. In contrast, artists such as Bai Ding, Bu Hua and Lao Jiang \u8001\u848b (aka Jiang Jianqiu \u848b\u5efa\u79cb) – whose representative work is Rock \u2018n\u2019 Roll on the New Long March <\/em>\u65b0\u957f\u5f81\u8def\u4e0a\u7684\u6447\u6eda (2000), have chosen to continue their animation production or to teach at art colleges.[29]<\/a><\/p>\n

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Figure 4. We can now still access some works made by Shan-ke<\/em> via accessing the Flash Archive Project (https:\/\/flash.zczc.cz\/<\/a>). (Screenshot taken on August 23, 2025.)<\/p>\n

Furthermore, influenced by the development of new media art in China, prestigious art colleges also began to set up relevant majors and departments. To illustrate, following the Digital Art Studio of the Central Academy of Fine Arts set in 2001, the China Academy of Art founded a New Media Department \u65b0\u5a92\u4f53\u827a\u672f\u7cfb in 2003. Then, in 2004, the Beijing Film Academy established the New Media Laboratory \u65b0\u5a92\u4f53\u5b9e\u9a8c\u5ba4.<\/p>\n

Thus far, the \u201cgrassroots vs. school\u201d paradigm had begun to take shape, but it was seldom highlighted due to its limited influence. On the contrary, from a perspective of aesthetic appreciation, the \u201clow culture vs. high culture\u201d paradigm has been widely applied in mainstream criticism.<\/p>\n

For one thing, when negative comments towards Shan-ke<\/em> became common (e.g., weird, devoid of beauty, needs professional design), a work named Adults Only <\/em>\u5c11\u513f\u4e0d\u5b9c (2000) was criticized as a vulgar and erotic production. Responding to this controversy, Bai Ding, the author of Adults Only<\/em>, later created a more philosophic Lost Dream <\/em>\u5931\u843d\u7684\u68a6\u5883 (2003). At the same time, with most flash animations becoming similar and dull, these kinds of works had gradually been linked to \u201clow culture\u201d as well. As a result, \u201clow culture\u201d has reflected some stereotypes, regarding not only the animations themselves (e.g., superficial themes, low-cost productions, and overhyped stories), but also some creators\u2019 amateur backgrounds. For the other thing, after Bu Hua released her work Cat <\/em>\u732b (2002), the descriptor \u201chigh culture\u201d has been widely recognized, making animations made by the \u201cArtists\u201d more acclaimed.[30]<\/a> This trend was further exemplified via the news reports that Cat<\/em> was short-listed in the 2004 Annecy International Animated Film Festival and the 2006 Zagreb World Festival of Animated Film – two renowned events for showcasing animated shorts. Besides, as the number of art exhibitions focusing on independent animation increased and Internet activities featuring User Generated Content arose (e.g., Tudou Film Festival \u571f\u8c46\u6620\u50cf\u8282) in the late 2000s, we observed a wider aesthetic discrepancy towards personally created animations. Consequently, the \u201clow culture vs. high culture\u201d paradigm has been strongly affirmed.<\/p>\n

Among these exhibitions, by highlighting the kinship between exhibits and contemporary art through film selection and promotion, the 2008-2009 Beijing Independent Film Festival   \u5317\u4eac\u72ec\u7acb\u5f71\u50cf\u8bba\u575b\/\u72ec\u7acb\u7535\u5f71\u5c55, and the 2009 Post 24 Independent Animation Festival \u540e24\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u5c55 in Shanghai have made a great contribution to disseminating the academic usage of \u201cindependent animation.\u201d In addition, from 2008 to 2015, the Tudou Film Festival emphasized the grassroots and non-academic attributes of its participants by giving prizes to works such as See Through <\/em>\u6253\uff0c\u6253\u4e2a\u5927\u897f\u74dc (2008), Lee\u2019s Adventures <\/em>\u674e\u732e\u8ba1\u5386\u9669\u8bb0 (2009), I\u2019m MT <\/em>\u6211\u53ebMT (2009), and The Red <\/em>\u7ea2\u9886\u5dfe\u4fa0 (2010).<\/p>\n

Therefore, around 2010, the \u201clow culture vs. high culture\u201d paradigm for showing audiences\u2019 appreciation preference was differentiated, and the \u201cgrassroots vs. school\u201d paradigm for labeling creators\u2019 education or career background was deepened. These phenomena could be reflected in both submission inquiries and short-listed results of the aforementioned exhibitions\/festivals.<\/p>\n

Even so, \u201clow culture vs. high culture\u201d and \u201cgrassroots vs. school\u201d do not fully represent the picture and legacy of \u201cflashempire.com\u201d. From an animation production perspective, it is significant that industrialized attempts at Flash animation and Shan-ke<\/em> have strongly accelerated the marketization process of Chinese animation. Along these lines, cases of Shan-ke<\/em> adhering to commercial activities (e.g., Hutoon \u4e92\u8c61\u52a8\u753b, B&T\u5f7c\u5cb8\u5929, ITS Cartoon\u6b6a\u9a6c\u79c0\/\u5176\u5361\u901a, L2<\/sup> Studio \u4e2d\u534e\u8f69\/\u827e\u5c14\u5e73\u65b9, and Busifan \u60a0\u65e0\u4e00\u54c1\/\u4e0d\u601d\u51e1) are worth researching.<\/p>\n

Business Environment: Strengthening \u201cNon-profit vs. Commercial\u201d and Labelling \u201cPersonal Creation vs. Team Production\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

As a major driving force, the commercialization of Flash animation and Shan-ke<\/em> has closely fueled the industrialization of Chinese animation. But take the year 2015, when Monkey King: Hero Is Back <\/em>\u897f\u6e38\u8bb0\u4e4b\u5927\u5723\u5f52\u6765 became an unprecedented success as a turning point, the business environment surrounding independent animation in China has been refreshed, where the word \u201cindependence\u201d newly refers to personal creation and non-profit works.<\/p>\n

Admittedly, without the investment and distribution support from large-scale filmmaking studios, personally-created or small team-produced animations usually have less potential to make a profit than the commercial ones. However, we suppose that the association between independent animation and its \u201cnon-profit\u201d feature in China, as well as its opposition to commercial animation in the public perception, has not existed from the very beginning.<\/p>\n

\u201cNon-profit\u201d \u975e\u76c8\u5229 in Chinese, means \u201cunprofitable\u201d or \u201cnot for profit.\u201d Then, when people talk about \u201cunprofitable,\u201d they usually refer to a business entity that is running at a loss. In this sense, although some animation companies choose to make profits by undertaking outsourcing projects or applying for subsidies from the government, most of their fellows have suffered to make ends meet via a mere primary income (excl. secondary income from selling DVDs, merchandise and copyright). Particularly, from 2000 to the early 2010s, both web animations and animated features were at their doldrums; thus, a public image that \u201cmaking animations cannot make money\u201d has been subtly generated.<\/p>\n

For instance, domestic television stations usually paid no more than CNY 500 to 600 per minute to the TV animation producers, which was too little to offset the enormous cost.[31]<\/a> As to web animations, monetization trials such as ad placement, membership plan and copyright licensing for the streaming platforms and their content providers were nascent and imperfect. Hutoon, producer of the so-called \u201cfirst Chinese animated online TV show\u201d Miss Puff  <\/em>\u6ce1\u8299\u5c0f\u59d0 (2010), even sued Youku over default payments.[32]<\/a> In terms of animated films, when SAFS\u2019s Lotus Lantern <\/em>\u5b9d\u83b2\u706f gained \u201ca great success\u201d with CNY 12 million cost, CNY 25 million total gross and over 3 million audience in 1999,[33]<\/a> works released several years later, such as Thru The Moebius Strip <\/em>\u9b54\u6bd4\u65af\u73af (2005, CNY 3.6 million total gross), Saving Mother <\/em>\u897f\u5cb3\u5947\u7ae5 (2006, CNY 4 million total gross), Sparking Red Star <\/em>\u95ea\u95ea\u7684\u7ea2\u661f (2007, CNY 5 million total gross) and Calabash Brothers <\/em>\u846b\u82a6\u5144\u5f1f (2008, CNY 8.5 million total gross), subsequently flopped. Notably, although Storm Rider: Clash of Evils <\/em>\u98ce\u4e91\u51b3 broke the box office record of Lotus Lantern<\/em> in 2008 with CNY 27 million, compared with its cost (CNY 60 million, a five-year production), the film is regarded as an investment tragedy in the history of Chinese animation.[34]<\/a><\/p>\n

It was not until Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf <\/em>\u559c\u7f8a\u7f8a\u4e0e\u7070\u592a\u72fc\u4e4b\u725b\u6c14\u51b2\u5929 and One Hundred Thousand Bad Jokes <\/em>\u5341\u4e07\u4e2a\u51b7\u7b11\u8bdd became blockbusters that the situation was rectified. Adapted from a preschool animated TV series, the first Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf <\/em>movie was released in cinemas in 2009. Then, by taking over CNY 100 million total gross, it has become a milestone in the history of Chinese animated features. Later, One Hundred Thousand Bad Jokes <\/em>was released online and became a great hit with over 100 million clicks in China.[35]<\/a> Therefore, when this animation brand released its first movie in 2014, it took over CNY 100 million total gross, becoming an unprecedented feat of a non-children-oriented Chinese animated feature. Unfortunately, there were few successful cases, let alone those works made by individuals or small teams. For example, Piercing I <\/em>\u523a\u75db\u6211 (2010), an animated feature independently made by Liu Jian \u5218\u5065, could only be distributed online.[36]<\/a> Before Monkey King: Hero Is Back<\/em> (CNY 954 million total gross) broke a new box office record in 2015, high-cost original animated feature such as The Legend of Qin <\/em>\u79e6\u65f6\u660e\u6708\u4e4b\u9f99\u817e\u4e07\u91cc (2013, CNY 59 million total gross), Dragon Nest: Warriors\u2019 Dawn <\/em>\u9f99\u4e4b\u8c37\uff1a\u7834\u6653\u5947\u5175 (2014, CNY 57 million total gross), 10000 Years Later <\/em>\u4e00\u4e07\u5e74\u4ee5\u540e (2014, CNY 27 million total gross) and Kuiba <\/em>\u9b41\u62d4 series (2011-2014, CNY 54 million total gross for three films), subsequently failed.<\/p>\n

As such, even with the team efforts, it is not easy for commercial animations to make profits, not to mention those independent works. In this light, when people talk about domestic animations in a wider public space, it has been inevitable to describe them as commercial projects, unprofitable pieces, personal creations or team productions.<\/p>\n

However, according to our research on the dynamics of domestic personal creators, we argue that some of their key opinion leaders have kept identifying themselves as \u201cindependent animators\u201d \u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u4eba. As a result, they have also strongly underlined the \u201cnot-for-profit\u201d attribute of China\u2019s independent animations.<\/p>\n

Specifically speaking, firstly, as the concept of \u201cindependent animation\u201d was widely disseminated in the 2000s, both differences and connections between independent and commercial animations have become a common topic and agenda for relevant exhibitions\/festivals. And such practices have been inherited by the Feinaki Beijing Animation Week,[37]<\/a> an independent animation-focused event founded in 2019.<\/p>\n

Secondly, though some typical representatives among independent animators do not resist commercial projects, they normally distance themselves from \u201cmainstream\u201d or \u201ccommercial\u201d animations, especially when it comes to their living environment and status. Thirdly, they also often express their discontent with controversial monetization behaviors such as subsidy deception, childish work and low-quality production;[38]<\/a> thus, enlarging the gap between independent and commercial animations to some extent.<\/p>\n

Thereby, when those \u201cnot-for-profit\u201d independent animators set the tone for an unprofitable market environment among public opinions, against the scenario that the animation industry has been increasingly industrialized and commercialized in China, gaps and stereotypes between independent and commercial animations have also been elevated. In addition, besides Shan-ke<\/em>, other kinds of personal creators have been incorporated into the commercial system. The so-called \u201cWeb animators\u201d Web \u7cfb\u539f\u753b\u5e08 represented by Guangxue Hexin \u5149\u5b66\u6838\u5fc3, i.e., people who make use of online materials and teach themselves animation-making knowledge, are pointed out. Meanwhile, when the commercial value of Chinese animations has been gradually pulled up by industrialized works (e.g., the productions of Coloroom \u5149\u7ebf\u5f69\u6761\u5c4b and Light Chaser Animation \u8ffd\u5149\u52a8\u753b), the advantages of industrial production are further shown, leading to a stickier label of \u201cpersonal creation vs. team production.\u201d<\/p>\n

These label reinforcements are threefold. Firstly, when successful stories of personal creations being shifted to team productions gain more attention, similar choices become more acceptable. Particularly, around 2015, as domestic animation companies received more funds or investments, personal studios and small teams such as Cococartoon \u53ef\u53ef\u8c46 (Ne Zha <\/em>series \u54ea\u5412\u4e4b\u9b54\u7ae5\u964d\u4e16\/\u95f9\u6d77, 2019\/2025), One&All Animation Studio \u4e2d\u4f20\u5408\u9053 (Legend of Deification <\/em>\u59dc\u5b50\u7259, 2020) and HMCH \u5bd2\u6728\u6625\u534e (The Legend of Luoxiaohei <\/em>series\u7f57\u5c0f\u9ed1\u6218\u8bb0\u7cfb\u5217, 2019\/2025) began to seek a higher production capacity for making an animated feature. Some of them even outsourced and accepted foreign collaborations, which was nearly unattainable in the past scenarios. Secondly, when the number of animated blockbusters increased and the competition among streaming platforms intensified, domestic competitors including Tencent Video, Bilibili and Youku began to launch projects that support young animation directors. As a result, they accelerate the expansion process of many personal or small-scale studios in China. Thirdly, though current discursive foci of China\u2019s animation industry still dwell on an old-fashioned argument swaying between either a director-centered or a producer-centered system,[39]<\/a> the industry in practice has kept calling for releasing more voices to animation producers. Compared to the film industry\u2019s long-lasting advocacies on standardizing the responsibilities of producers, developing the management mindset for directors, and enhancing their work efficiency, the focus on the production perspective of the animation industry is relatively outdated.[40]<\/a><\/p>\n

Overall, we argue that it was not until 2015 that independent animations in China were regarded as non-profit personal creations, due to significant changes in the business environment for the domestic animation industry. Nevertheless, outlier cases such as Liu Jian and \u201cFIRST directors\u201d as a collective exist, as those independent creators usually make their debuts at the FIRST International Film Festival.[41]<\/a> Liu Jian\u2019s latest Art College 1994<\/em> made its Chinese premiere at the 17th FIRST in 2023; it was also the first time that FIRST chose an animated feature as the opening film. With nascent works titled \u201cShort Animation Collection\u201d \u52a8\u753b\u77ed\u7247\u96c6 (e.g., the intervals of Black Myth: Wukong<\/em>) and animated features\/series incubated from their short counterparts (e.g., Fog Hill of Five Elements <\/em>\u96fe\u5c71\u4e94\u884c, 2016-2023; Nobody <\/em>\u6d6a\u6d6a\u5c71\u5c0f\u5996\u602a, 2025), we are now witnessing how works that used to be non-profit and personally created are earning greater possibilities in China. This, plus generative AI that is turning more upskilled users into animation creators, continuously challenges production forms and people\u2019s thoughts on \u201cindependent animation\u201d as an umbrella term.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Figure 5. As a preview or warm-up before Art College 1994 <\/em>was formally released in China on June 21, 2025, the film had limited screenings overseas. Here is its introduction from the flyer for the \u201cModern China Film Festival\u201d \u73fe\u4ee3\u4e2d\u56fd\u6620\u753b\u796d held in Japan in 2024. This film ultimately grossed CNY 0.728 million at the Chinese box office. (Source Guo Baoyi, photo taken on September 1, 2025.)<\/p>\n

Conclusions, Limitations and Implications<\/strong><\/p>\n

To summarize, as a medium that can be made and appreciated by both general and professional creators, in domestic research and discussion, animation has long shown its differences (rather than opposition) between the aesthetics and the production aspects.[42]<\/a> However, when the term \u201cindependence\u201d has been mixed up in the fields of animation, film and contemporary art, its definition becomes vague and makes people confused.<\/p>\n

In response, based on an animation-film-contemporary art intertwined perspective, this paper attempts to sort out the complicated relationships among (1) min-jian<\/em> vs. official, (2) grassroots vs. school, (3) low culture vs. high culture, (4) experimental vs. non-experimental, (5) non-profit vs. commercial, and (6) personal creation vs. team production. On this basis, this paper also clarifies what \u201cindependence\u201d could mean in reference to China\u2019s independent animations. Among these paradigms, we argue that there are at least three characteristics to describe an independently-made animation work in the Chinese context, i.e., min-jian<\/em>, non-profit and personal creation. Specifically, they reflect both emphases and changes for the \u201cindependence\u201d of domestic independent animations from a production perspective, ranging from the periods of 20th-century SAFS, the 2000s rise and fall of \u201cflashempire.com,\u201d and the post-2010s development of the animation industry.<\/p>\n

Despite research outcomes, as the study of China\u2019s independent animation is far from a mature stage and most of its relevant discussions are relatively subjective, limitations are flagged up. For one thing, compared to Zhan and Yin\u2019s empirical research on the judgment of domestic independent films, documentaries, experimental images and video installations as a whole, i.e., made by an unemployed entity, invested by an unofficial channel, and filmed\/released in an illegal way, this paper merely looks into the literature of producing independent animations, has not further investigated their financial sources and distribution channels.[43]<\/a> For another thing, this paper has also not researched some occasionally-used descriptors such as \u201c\u81ea\u4e3b\u52a8\u753b\u201d and \u201c\u81ea\u4e3b\u5236\u4f5c\u201d, as we treat them as loanwords from English (self-producing) or Japanese (\u81ea\u4e3b\u5236\u4f5c\u30a2\u30cb\u30e1).<\/p>\n

More importantly, with controversy aroused by creators and scholars, the relationship between independent animations and independent films has been under debate in China.[44]<\/a> Then being limited to various animation creation ecologies among countries\/regions worldwide, foreign research not only less emphasizes its min-jian<\/em> (unofficial) or official attribute, but also less compares and distinguishes its aesthetic or production aspect.[45]<\/a><\/p>\n

In conclusion, as the authors agree and experience, making an artwork independently does not merely rely on some sort of spirit, but also involves a structured approach in everyday practices,[46]<\/a> this paper attempts to clarify the Chinese meanings and references of independent animation\u2019s \u201cindependence\u201d from a production perspective. To further emphasize, despite the comprehensive study across animation, film and contemporary art areas, we do not suggest an equivocal mindset or equivalent theory among animation, live-action film, independent animation, and independent video. And though there are quite a few research perspectives and discourses that distinguish animated works by duration (making short films is often easier to achieve a \u201cmin-jian<\/em>, non-profit, personal creation\u201d status than producing the long ones),[47]<\/a> we still maintain our focus on the production subject – the person – to consider how \u201cindependent animation\u201d takes shape. As we can often observe individuals wearing multiple hats in the credits of independent animations, the \u201cperson\u201d here, whether director, producer, animator or other roles, is equally worth exploring.[48]<\/a> Thereupon, future studies are suggested to collect more primary resources and conduct an empirical analysis of the credit lists and the distribution channels of independent animation in China. To this end, we have already made an attempt at analyzing the prized and nominated lists of animated works spanning 2013-2023\u2019s FIRST International Film Festival.[49]<\/a><\/p>\n

Notes and Acknowledgments<\/strong><\/p>\n

This paper was first presented in Chinese at the \u201c2022 Animation and Digital Arts International Conference\u201d, organized by the Communication University of China. As a supplementary resource, the original bilingual slides can be accessed here<\/a>. The authors later translated the paper into English with constant revisions and updates during 2023-2025. Additionally, the authors would like to express their gratitude to Mr. Fu Guangchao for his valuable insights, particularly on the history of the Shanghai Animation Film Studio.<\/p>\n

[1]<\/a> See Wei Wei \u9b4f\u5a01, \u201cZhongguo dulidonghua lilunfazhan tanjiu – Jiyu CiteSpace de keshihua julei tupu fenxi \u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u7406\u8bba\u53d1\u5c55\u63a2\u7a76\u2014\u2014\u57fa\u4e8e CiteSpace \u7684\u53ef\u89c6\u5316\u805a\u7c7b\u56fe\u8c31\u5206\u6790 (Research on the development of China\u2019s independent animation theory – visual clustering graph analysis based on CiteSpace),\u201d Xiandai Xinxi Keji <\/em>\u73b0\u4ee3\u4fe1\u606f\u79d1\u6280 (Modern Information Technology) 6, 18 (2022): 89-95.<\/p>\n

[2]<\/a> Zhang Xiaotao \u5f20\u5c0f\u6d9b, \u201cBeizhebide shiyan – 2000nian yilai zhongguo dulidonghua de shiyan zhilv \u88ab\u906e\u853d\u7684\u5b9e\u9a8c\u2014\u20142000\u5e74\u4ee5\u6765\u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u7684\u5b9e\u9a8c\u4e4b\u65c5 (The obscured experiment – the experimental journey of Chinese independent animation since 2000),\u201d Yishu Pinglun<\/em> \u827a\u672f\u8bc4\u8bba (Arts Criticism) 111, 2 (2013): 74-80.<\/p>\n

[3]<\/a> Anonymous, \u201cShenzhen dulidonghua shuangnianzhan baogao zhier: Shei wei zhongguo dulidonghua maidan? \u6df1\u5733\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u53cc\u5e74\u5c55\u62a5\u544a\u4e4b\u4e8c\uff1a\u8c01\u4e3a\u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u4e70\u5355? (Report of Shenzhen Independent Animation Biennale No.2: who pays for Chinese independent animation?),\u201d Yachang Yishu Wang<\/em> \u96c5\u660c\u827a\u672f\u7f51 (Artron.Net), 2012.<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a> \u201cContemporary animation\u201d would be another term that is worth deliberately examining. For example, Yamamura Koji \u5c71\u6751\u6d69\u4e8c categorized \u201cindependent animation in China\u201d \u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u7cfb as the localized practice of contemporary animation\u30b3\u30f3\u30c6\u30f3\u30dd\u30e9\u30ea\u30fc\u30fb\u30a2\u30cb\u30e1\u30fc\u30b7\u30e7\u30f3 in a context that specifically refers to Mainland China, where Chen Lianhua \u9648\u83b2\u534e and Lei Lei \u96f7\u78ca are considered key figures. In Cao\u2019s curation, independent animation is denoted as \u201canimated work made based on individual production\u201d \u4e00\u4e2a\u4eba\u7684\u52a8\u753b in a converged context of contemporary art and animated art.  Anonymous, \u201cXinzhan yugao | Xin zhongguoxuepai donghua nianwunian dazhan \u65b0\u5c55\u9884\u544a\uff5c\u65b0\u201c\u4e2d\u56fd\u5b66\u6d3e\u201d\u52a8\u753b\u5eff\u4e94\u5e74\u5927\u5c55 (Notice of new exhibition | 25th anniversary exhibition of the New Chinese School).\u201d BEING Art Museum <\/em>\u6d66\u4e1c\u78a7\u4e91\u7f8e\u672f\u9986, July 9, 2025. <\/p>\n

[5]<\/a> Dong Bingfeng, \u201cThe Ghost Goes West: Four Notes on the Themed Exhibition of 2nd Shenzhen Independent Animation Biennial,\u201d in Vision and Beyond: 2nd Shenzhen Independent Animation Biennale<\/em>, ed. Dong Bingfeng and He Jinfang (Heidelberg: Alte Br\u00fccke Verlag, 2014), 16-21.<\/p>\n

[6]<\/a> Wei Shilei \u536b\u8bd7\u78ca, \u201cDonghua gerenhua shidai de lailin – Zhongguo dulidonghua xianxiang yanjiu \u52a8\u753b\u4e2a\u4eba\u5316\u65f6\u4ee3\u7684\u6765\u4e34\u2014\u2014\u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u73b0\u8c61\u7814\u7a76 (The advent of personal animation industry: research on phenomena of independent animation in China),\u201d Zhuangshi<\/em> \u88c5\u9970 277, 5 (2016): 68-69.<\/p>\n

[7]<\/a> Chen Lianhua \u9648\u83b2\u534e, Yiye yulongwu: Donghua lieguo youji <\/em>\u4e00\u591c\u9c7c\u9f99\u821e\uff1a\u52a8\u753b\u5217\u56fd\u6e38\u8bb0 (Dance of Fish and Dragon – A Trip with Animation) (Beijing: Communication University of China Press, 2016), 162-163.<\/p>\n

[8]<\/a> Sha Dan \u6c99\u4e39, Duan Tianran \u6bb5\u5929\u7136 and Zhu Yantong \u6731\u5f66\u6f7c, \u201cDonghua jiezhan guancha \u52a8\u753b\u8282\u5c55\u89c2\u5bdf (A conversation about animation film festivals and exhibitions),\u201d Dangdai donghua <\/em>\u5f53\u4ee3\u52a8\u753b (Contemporary Animation) 304, 4 (2023): 9-18.<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a> Zheng Yuming \u90d1\u7389\u660e and Yu Haiyan \u4e8e\u6d77\u71d5, Donghua zhipian guanli<\/em> \u52a8\u753b\u5236\u7247\u7ba1\u7406 (Animation Production Management) (Beijing: Communication University of China Press, 2015), 2-6.<\/p>\n

[10]<\/a> Wang Keyue \u738b\u53ef\u8d8a, \u201cZhongguo dulidonghua: Hunzahua xingtai yu quanqiuhua xiangxiang \u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\uff1a\u6df7\u6742\u5316\u5f62\u6001\u4e0e\u5168\u7403\u5316\u60f3\u8c61 (Chinese independent animation: hybridized forms and global imagination),\u201d Dianying yishu<\/em> \u7535\u5f71\u827a\u672f (Film Art) 359, 6 (2014): 22-27.<\/p>\n

[11]<\/a> Xue Yanping \u859b\u71d5\u5e73, Feizhuliu donghua dianying <\/em>\u975e\u4e3b\u6d41\u52a8\u753b\u7535\u5f71 (Un-mainstream Animated Film III) (Beijing: Communication University of China Press, 2018), 303-326.<\/p>\n

[12]<\/a> Li Sixiao \u674e\u601d\u6f47, \u201cJiyu yu kunjing: Zhongguo dulidonghuaren shengtai yu zuopin xinxing tuiguang fangshi tanxi <\/em>\u673a\u9047\u4e0e\u56f0\u5883\uff1a\u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u4eba\u751f\u6001\u4e0e\u4f5c\u54c1\u65b0\u578b\u63a8\u5e7f\u65b9\u5f0f\u63a2\u6790 (Opportunity and dilemma: exploring the ecology of Chinese independent animators and new promotion methods of their works),\u201d (Master\u2019s thesis, Fudan University, 2012). Zhou Wenhai, Chinese Independent Animation: Renegotiating Identity in Modern China<\/em> (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 1-15.<\/p>\n

[13]<\/a> Zhang Yipin \u5f20\u4e00\u54c1, \u201cZuozhe donghua – Zhongguo dangdaidonghua de yishu shiyan <\/em>\u4f5c\u8005\u52a8\u753b\u2014\u2014\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f53\u4ee3\u52a8\u753b\u7684\u827a\u672f\u5b9e\u9a8c (Author animation – the contemporary animated art experiment),\u201d (PhD dissertation, China Academy of Art, 2015).<\/p>\n

[14]<\/a> For animated works in China, it ended in January 1995, when the Chinese government abolished the system of purchasing animation works from state-owned animation studios.<\/p>\n

[15]<\/a> Han Peng \u97e9\u9e4f, \u201cJingdian de jiazhi yu chanshi – Zailun zhuanxingqian de zhongguo donghuadianying \u7ecf\u5178\u7684\u4ef7\u503c\u4e0e\u9610\u91ca\u2014\u2014\u518d\u8bba\u8f6c\u578b\u524d\u7684\u4e2d\u56fd\u52a8\u753b\u7535\u5f71 (The values and interpretations of classics: Chinese animated films before the transformation in 1980),\u201d Dangdai dianying<\/em> \u5f53\u4ee3\u7535\u5f71 (Contemporary Cinema) 246, 9 (2016): 182-185.<\/p>\n

[16]<\/a> Liu Shuliang \u5218\u4e66\u4eae, \u201cZhongguodonghuaxuepai de gainian kaoyuan, zaoqichuanbo yu dangdaiyanzhan” “\u4e2d\u56fd\u52a8\u753b\u5b66\u6d3e\u201d\u7684\u6982\u5ff5\u8003\u6e90\u3001\u65e9\u671f\u4f20\u64ad\u4e0e\u5f53\u4ee3\u5ef6\u5c55 (The conceptual genealogy, early dissemination and contemporary extension of Chinese Animation School), Xiandai chuanbo <\/em>\u73b0\u4ee3\u4f20\u64ad (Modern Communication) 323, 6 (2023): 108-114.<\/p>\n

[17]<\/a> Cao Kai \u66f9\u607a, \u201cYiluo zhi feng: yibu shiyandonghua de qianbiaoceng fajue \u9057\u843d\u4e4b\u201c\u98ce\u201d\uff1a\u4e00\u90e8\u5b9e\u9a8c\u52a8\u753b\u7684\u6d45\u8868\u5c42\u53d1\u6398 (The \u2018Wind\u2019 of the fall: the shallow surface excavation of an experimental animation),\u201d Huakan <\/em>\u753b\u520a (Art Monthly) 465, 9 (2019): 71-75.<\/p>\n

[18]<\/a> Fu Guangchao \u5085\u5e7f\u8d85, \u201cLiangjie erzhong: zhongguo guoji donghua dianyingjie chenfulu \u4e24\u5c4a\u800c\u7ec8\uff1a\u4e0a\u6d77\u56fd\u9645\u52a8\u753b\u7535\u5f71\u8282\u6d6e\u6c89\u5f55 (The end of two festivals: rise and fall of Shanghai International Animation Film Festival),\u201d Duku2302<\/em> \u8bfb\u5e93 2302 (Beijing: New Star Press, 2023), 45-155.<\/p>\n

[19]<\/a> Wu Weihua, \u201cThe ambivalent image factory: the genealogy and visual history of Chinese Independent Animation,\u201d Animation<\/em> 13, 3 (2018): 221-237.<\/p>\n

[20]<\/a> Cao Kai \u66f9\u607a, \u201cFushi jiagou – Zhongguo duli dianying shishu moxing \u590d\u5f0f\u67b6\u6784\u2500\u2500\u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u7535\u5f71\u53f2\u8ff0\u6a21\u578b (Compound structure – A model of Chinese independent film history),\u201d Xiju yu yingshi pinglun<\/em> \u620f\u5267\u4e0e\u5f71\u89c6\u8bc4\u8bba (Stage and Screen Reviews) 12, 3 (2016): 13-21.<\/p>\n

[21]<\/a> Yin Fujun \u6bb7\u798f\u519b, \u201cShoupi zhongguo donghuapian ji zuozhe de kaozheng \u9996\u6279\u4e2d\u56fd\u52a8\u753b\u7247\u53ca\u4f5c\u8005\u7684\u8003\u8bc1 (Textual research on the first Chinese animated films and their authors),\u201d Dianying yishu<\/em> \u7535\u5f71\u827a\u672f (Film Art) 312, 1 (2007): 146-150.<\/p>\n

[22]<\/a> Fu Guangchao \u5085\u5e7f\u8d85, \u201cZhongguo donghua changpian chuangshiji: wanshi xiongdi de tieshangongzhu gongzuo baogao | lishi gouchen \u4e2d\u56fd\u52a8\u753b\u957f\u7247\u521b\u4e16\u7eaa\uff1a\u4e07\u6c0f\u5144\u5f1f\u7684\u300a\u94c1\u6247\u516c\u4e3b\u300b\u5de5\u4f5c\u62a5\u544a\uff5c\u53f2\u6599\u94a9\u6c89 (The genesis of Chinese Animated Feature Films: a work report of the Wan Brothers\u2019 Princess Iron Fan | Past Stories),\u201d Kongzang Dongman Ziliaoguan<\/em> \u7a7a\u85cf\u52a8\u6f2b\u8d44\u6599\u9986 (Kongzang Animation & Comics Archive), November 19, 2021.<\/p>\n

[23]<\/a> Wan Laiming \u4e07\u7c41\u9e23 and Wan Guohun \u4e07\u56fd\u9b42, Wo yu songwukong<\/em> \u6211\u4e0e\u5b59\u609f\u7a7a (The Monkey King and I) (Taiyuan: Beiyue Wenyi Chubanshe, 1986), 88.<\/p>\n

[24]<\/a> Wang Chunchen, \u201cThe World of Soul: Building Virtual Art Engineering – On the Theoretical Significance of Chinese Independent Animation,\u201d in Documents of the First Shenzhen Independent Animation Biennale<\/em>, ed. Wang Chunchen, Zhang Xiaotao and He Jinfang (Beijing: China Youth Publishing Group, 2012), 11-13.<\/p>\n

[25]<\/a> Qiu Zhijie \u90b1\u5fd7\u6770 and Wu Meichun \u5434\u7f8e\u7eaf, \u201cZhongguo luxiang yishu de xingqi yu fazhan 1990-1996 \u4e2d\u56fd\u5f55\u50cf\u827a\u672f\u7684\u5174\u8d77\u4e0e\u53d1\u5c55 1990-1996 (The emergence and development of video art in China 1990-1996),\u201d in Feixianxing Xushi<\/em> \u975e\u7ebf\u6027\u53d9\u4e8b (Non-Linear Narrative), ed. Wu Meichun and Xu Jiang (Hangzhou: China Academy of Art Press, 2003).<\/p>\n

[26]<\/a> Jin Xi \u9773\u5915, \u201cGaoxie meishu xiaopin \u641e\u4e9b\u7f8e\u672f\u7247\u5c0f\u54c1 (Create Some Short Mei-shu Films),\u201d in Meishu Dianying Chuangzuo Yanjiu<\/em> \u7f8e\u672f\u7535\u5f71\u521b\u4f5c\u7814\u7a76 (Research on Mei-shu film creation), ed. Dianying Tongxun Bianjishi\u300a\u7535\u5f71\u901a\u8baf\u300b\u7f16\u8f91\u5ba4 (Editorial Committee of Dianying Tongxun) (Beijing: China Film Press, 1984), 76-79.<\/p>\n

[27]<\/a> Qiu Zhijie \u90b1\u5fd7\u6770 and Wu Meichun \u5434\u7f8e\u7eaf, \u201cXinmeiti yishu de chengshou he zouxiang 1997-2001 \u65b0\u5a92\u4f53\u827a\u672f\u7684\u6210\u719f\u548c\u8d70\u54111997-2001 (The maturity and direction of new media art 1997-2001),\u201d in Feixianxing Xushi<\/em> \u975e\u7ebf\u6027\u53d9\u4e8b (Non-Linear Narrative), ed. Wu Meichun and Xu Jiang (Hangzhou: China Academy of Art Press, 2003).<\/p>\n

[28]<\/a> Biancheng Langzi \u8fb9\u57ce\u6d6a\u5b50, Shanke diguo jinghuaji 1 <\/em>\u95ea\u5ba2\u5e1d\u56fd\u7cbe\u534e\u96c61 (Collection of Flash.Empire 1) (Beijing: Publishing House of Electronics Industry, 2003), 356.<\/p>\n

[29]<\/a> Jiuyue \u4e5d\u6708,  \u201cWei meiyou lishi de hulianwang liuxia lishi – Shanke diguo huiyilu \u4e3a\u6ca1\u6709\u5386\u53f2\u7684\u4e92\u8054\u7f51\u7559\u4e0b\u5386\u53f2\u2014\u2014\u95ea\u5ba2\u5e1d\u56fd\u56de\u5fc6\u5f55 (Remarking history for the Internet without history – memoirs of the Flashempire.com),\u201d Youxi Yanjiu She <\/em>\u6e38\u620f\u7814\u7a76\u793e (Game Research Society), August 4, 2017.<\/p>\n

[30]<\/a> Wang Bo \u738b\u6ce2, \u201cFlash zai zhongguo Flash \u5728\u4e2d\u56fd (Flash in China),\u201d In Flash: Jishu haishi Yishu<\/em> Flash\uff1a\u6280\u672f\u8fd8\u662f\u827a\u672f (Flash: Technology or Art) (Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 2005), 17-71.<\/p>\n

[31]<\/a> Qian Jianping \u94b1\u5efa\u5e73, Shi Chuan \u77f3\u5ddd and Geng Shuai \u803f\u5e05, \u201cGuochan donghuapian de zuotian, jintian he mingtian – Qian Jianping fangtan lu shang \u56fd\u4ea7\u52a8\u753b\u7247\u7684\u6628\u5929\u3001\u4eca\u5929\u548c\u660e\u5929\u2014\u2014\u94b1\u5efa\u5e73\u8bbf\u8c08\u5f55\u4e0a (Yesterday, today and tomorrow of domestic animated films – interview with Qian Jianping Part I),\u201d Dangdai Donghua<\/em> \u5f53\u4ee3\u52a8\u753b (Contemporary Animation) 298, 2 (2022): 34-40.<\/p>\n

[32]<\/a> Pi San\u76ae\u4e09, \u201cWangluo donghua 3.0 shidai \u7f51\u7edc\u52a8\u753b3.0\u65f6\u4ee3 (The 3.0 period of web animation),\u201d Zhongguo Dianshi – Donghua <\/em>\u4e2d\u56fd\u7535\u89c6\uff08\u52a8\u753b\uff09(China TV – Animation) 51-52, Z1 (2014): 10-15.<\/p>\n

[33]<\/a> Dongfang rizhi – Shanghai gushi <\/em>\u4e1c\u65b9\u65e5\u5fd7\u2014\u4e0a\u6d77\u6545\u4e8b (Lock Today: Shanghai Story), aired July 30, 2008 on Dongfang Weishi \u4e1c\u65b9\u536b\u89c6 (Dragon TV).<\/p>\n

[34]<\/a> Considering the opacity and time-related discrepancies in early domestic film cost and box office data, this paper references official media reports for data up to 2010. For data from 2011 onward, it incorporates a comprehensive review of sources, including online media reports, company financial statements if available, Maoyan Pro, and Lighthouse Pro.<\/p>\n

[35]<\/a> Wu Xuguang \u5434\u65ed\u5149, \u201cShiwange lengxiaohua daihuo dongman ziben, Youyaoqi chenre shengeng IP chanye \u5341\u4e07\u4e2a\u51b7\u7b11\u8bdd\u5e26\u706b\u52a8\u6f2b\u8d44\u672c\uff0c\u6709\u5996\u6c14\u8d81\u70ed\u6df1\u8015IP\u4ea7\u4e1a (One Hundred Thousand Bad Jokes fueled the animation industry, as U17 Comics capitalized on the success to further develop its IP industry),\u201d Lichai Zhoubao<\/em> \u7406\u8d22\u5468\u62a5 (Money Week), April 26, 2015.<\/p>\n

[36]<\/a> Liu Jian \u5218\u5065, \u201cGeren donghua gongzuoshi de chulu: citongwo yu wangluo faxing \u4e2a\u4eba\u52a8\u753b\u5de5\u4f5c\u5ba4\u7684\u51fa\u8def\uff1a\u300a\u523a\u75db\u6211\u300b\u4e0e\u7f51\u7edc\u53d1\u884c (The prospects of individual animation studios: Piercing I and online distribution),\u201d Zhongguo Dianshi – Donghua <\/em>\u4e2d\u56fd\u7535\u89c6\uff08\u52a8\u753b\uff09(China TV – Animation) 38, 1 (2013): 31.<\/p>\n

[37]<\/a> Zhu Yantong \u6731\u5f66\u6f7c, \u201cDuitan huigu: cong huiben dao donghua, cong duli donghua dao yuanxian donghua dianying | feinaqi x benlai yingye \u5bf9\u8c08\u56de\u987e\uff1a\u4ece\u7ed8\u672c\u5230\u52a8\u753b\uff0c \u4ece\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u5230\u9662\u7ebf\u52a8\u753b\u7535\u5f71 | \u8d39\u90a3\u5947X\u672c\u6765\u5f71\u4e1a (Conversation Review: From Picture Book to Animation, From Independent Animation to Theatrical Animated Feature | Feinaki X Benlai Pictures),\u201d Feinaqi Donghua Xiaozu <\/em>\u8d39\u90a3\u5947\u52a8\u753b\u5c0f\u7ec4 (Feinaki Animation Group), January 16, 2021.<\/p>\n

[38]<\/a> Song Lei \u5b8b\u78ca, \u201cZhongguo duli donghuaren de shengcun xianzhuang \u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u4eba\u7684\u751f\u5b58\u73b0\u72b6 (The living status of Chinese independent animation creators),\u201d Wenhua Yuekan\u00b7Dongman Youxi <\/em>\u6587\u5316\u6708\u520a\u00b7\u52a8\u6f2b\u6e38\u620f (Cultural Monthly\u00b7ACG Review), 6 (2011).<\/p>\n

[39]<\/a> Qian Jianping \u94b1\u5efa\u5e73, Shi Chuan \u77f3\u5ddd and Geng Shuai \u803f\u5e05, \u201cGuochan donghuapian de zuotian, jintian he mingtian – Qian Jianping fangtan lu xia \u56fd\u4ea7\u52a8\u753b\u7247\u7684\u6628\u5929\u3001\u4eca\u5929\u548c\u660e\u5929\u2014\u2014\u94b1\u5efa\u5e73\u8bbf\u8c08\u5f55\u4e0b (Yesterday, today and tomorrow of domestic animated films – Interview with Qian Jianping Part 2),\u201d Dangdai Donghua<\/em> \u5f53\u4ee3\u52a8\u753b (Contemporary Animation) 299, 3 (2022): 58-63.<\/p>\n

[40]<\/a> Zhang Yu \u5f20\u715c, \u201cZhongguo dianying zhipianren jizhi de xianzhuang yu biange \u4e2d\u56fd\u7535\u5f71\u5236\u7247\u4eba\u673a\u5236\u7684\u73b0\u72b6\u4e0e\u53d8\u9769 (The situation and change of China film producer system),\u201d Dangdai Dianying<\/em> \u5f53\u4ee3\u7535\u5f71 (Contemporary Cinema) 214, 1 (2014): 4-20.<\/p>\n

[41]<\/a> Zhang Xiaoming \u5f20\u6653\u94ed, \u201cZouxiang dazhong: FIRST xi daoyan chutan \u8d70\u5411\u5927\u4f17\uff1a\u201cFIRST\u7cfb\u201d\u5bfc\u6f14\u521d\u63a2 (Towards the public: a first Look at the FIRST directors),\u201d Dianying Wenxue <\/em>\u7535\u5f71\u6587\u5b66 (Movie Literature) 734, 17 (2019): 97-101.<\/p>\n

[42]<\/a> Zhang Songlin \u5f20\u677e\u6797, \u201cMantan zhongguo donghuapian de qiantu \u6f2b\u8c08\u4e2d\u56fd\u52a8\u753b\u7247\u7684\u524d\u9014 (Talk about the future of China animation).\u201d Zhongguo Dianshi<\/em> \u4e2d\u56fd\u7535\u89c6 (China Television), 12 (1992), 35-37.<\/p>\n

[43]<\/a> Zhan Qingsheng \u8a79\u5e86\u751f and Yin Hong \u5c39\u9e3f, \u201cZhongguo duli yingxiang fazhan beiwanglu 1999-2006 \u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u5f71\u50cf\u53d1\u5c55\u5907\u5fd8\u5f551999-2006 (Memorandum on the development of independent video in China 1999-2006),\u201d Wenyi Zhengming<\/em> \u6587\u827a\u4e89\u9e23, 5 (2007): 100-127.<\/p>\n

[44]<\/a> Pi San\u76ae\u4e09, \u201cZhongguo duli donghua shinian yipie \u4e2d\u56fd\u72ec\u7acb\u52a8\u753b\u5341\u5e74\u4e00\u77a5 (A decade of independent animation in China at a glance).\u201d Huakan<\/em> \u753b\u520a (Art Monthly) 375, 3 (2012): 64-66. Zhao Yiping \u8d75\u6bc5\u5e73 and Jia Shan \u8d3e\u73ca, \u201cTuxiang, jiyi yu shiyan – Lei Lei de donghuayingxiang chuangzuo \u56fe\u50cf\u3001\u8bb0\u5fc6\u4e0e\u5b9e\u9a8c\u2014\u2014\u96f7\u78ca\u7684\u52a8\u753b\u5f71\u50cf\u521b\u4f5c (Image, memory and experiment – Lei Lei\u2019s animation and movie image creation),\u201d Zhuangshi<\/em> \u88c5\u9970333, 1 (2021): 76-81.      <\/p>\n

[45]<\/a> See the American experience and the Japanese insight. Ben Mitchell, \u201cIntroduction,\u201d in Independent Animation: Developing, Producing and Distributing Your Animated Films<\/em> (Boca Raton: CRC Press of Taylor & Francis Group, 2017), 1-10. Doki Nobuaki \u571f\u5c45\u4f38\u5f70, 21 Seiki no Anim\u0113shon ga Wakaru Hon<\/em> 21\u4e16\u7d00\u306e\u30a2\u30cb\u30e1\u30fc\u30b7\u30e7\u30f3\u304c\u308f\u304b\u308b\u672c (The Book of Understanding Animation in the 21st Century) (Tokyo: FilmArt, 2017), 9.<\/p>\n

[46]<\/a> Xiang Biao and Wu Qi, Self as Method: Thinking Through China and the World<\/em>, trans. David Ownby (Palgrave Macmillan, 2023), 232-233.<\/p>\n

[47]<\/a> Chen Liaoyu \u9648\u5ed6\u5b87, Yu Shui \u65bc\u6c34, Chen Lianhua \u9648\u83b2\u534e, Jiang Shen \u59dc\u7533 and Liu Mengya \u5218\u68a6\u96c5, \u201cZhongguo qitan chuangzuotan\u300a\u4e2d\u56fd\u5947\u8c2d\u300b\u521b\u4f5c\u8c08 (The conversation about the creation of Yao-Chinese Folktales),\u201d Dangdai Donghua<\/em> \u5f53\u4ee3\u52a8\u753b (Contemporary Animation) 302, 2 (2023): 6-18.<\/p>\n

[48]<\/a> Dai Lu \u6234\u7490, \u201cDonghua dianying de zuozhe wenti chuyi  \u52a8\u753b\u7535\u5f71\u7684\u2018\u4f5c\u8005\u2019\u95ee\u9898\u520d\u8bae (On my discussion about the Author of animation film),\u201d Sichuan Xiju<\/em>  \u56db\u5ddd\u620f\u5267 (Sichuan Drama), 4 (2024): 80-83.<\/p>\n

[49]<\/a> Bifang \u5f7c\u65b9 and Baoyi, \u201cQu zhongguo zuiye dianyingjie kan donghua, shiyizhong shenme tiyan \u53bb\u300c\u4e2d\u56fd\u6700\u91ce\u7535\u5f71\u8282\u300d\u770b\u52a8\u753b\uff0c\u662f\u4e00\u79cd\u4ec0\u4e48\u4f53\u9a8c (What was the experience of watching animation in the wildest film festival in China)\u201d, Donghua Xueshupa <\/em>\u52a8\u753b\u5b66\u672f\u8db4 (Anim-Babblers), October 12, 2023.<\/p>\n

BIO: <\/strong><\/p>\n

Wang Yang is a writer and was the Editor-in-Chief of \u201cAnim-babblers (Donghua Xueshupa)\u201d (2020-2025), an SNS-based industry media that specializes in offering news, reviews and academic dynamics for professional animators and animation fans in the Chinese context. He also acted as a preliminary juror of The 6th Feinaki Beijing Animation Week (2024).<\/p>\n

Guo Baoyi is a contributing writer of \u201cAnim-babblers\u201d (2021-present). As both a researcher and practitioner in the film and animation industry, her research field mainly lies in popular culture and the cultural\/creative industry in East Asia. She is currently undertaking a long-term art-based research\/research-based art project on \u201cCantonese Animation\u201d (2024-ongoing).<\/p>\n\r\n\t\t